Display options
Cite
Vuong C, Van Uum SH, O'Dell LE, et al. The effects of opioids and opioid analogs on animal and human endocrine systems. Endocr Rev. 2009;31(1):98-132doi: 10.1210/er.2009-0009.
Vuong, C., Van Uum, S. H., O'Dell, L. E., Lutfy, K., & Friedman, T. C. (2010). The effects of opioids and opioid analogs on animal and human endocrine systems. Endocrine reviews, 31(1), 98-132. https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2009-0009
Vuong, Cassidy, et al. "The effects of opioids and opioid analogs on animal and human endocrine systems." Endocrine reviews vol. 31,1 (2010): 98-132. doi: https://doi.org/10.1210/er.2009-0009
Vuong C, Van Uum SH, O'Dell LE, Lutfy K, Friedman TC. The effects of opioids and opioid analogs on animal and human endocrine systems. Endocr Rev. 2010 Feb;31(1):98-132. doi: 10.1210/er.2009-0009. Epub 2009 Nov 10. PMID: 19903933; PMCID: PMC2852206.
Copy Download .nbib Format: NLM
Share it on

Endocr Rev. 2010 Feb;31(1):98-132. doi: 10.1210/er.2009-0009. Epub 2009 Nov 10.

The effects of opioids and opioid analogs on animal and human endocrine systems.

Endocrine reviews

Cassidy Vuong, Stan H M Van Uum, Laura E O'Dell, Kabirullah Lutfy, Theodore C Friedman

Affiliations

  1. Division of Endocrinology, Charles Drew University of Medicine & Sciences, 1731 East 120th Street, Los Angeles, California 90059, USA.

PMID: 19903933 PMCID: PMC2852206 DOI: 10.1210/er.2009-0009

Abstract

Opioid abuse has increased in the last decade, primarily as a result of increased access to prescription opioids. Physicians are also increasingly administering opioid analgesics for noncancer chronic pain. Thus, knowledge of the long-term consequences of opioid use/abuse has important implications for fully evaluating the clinical usefulness of opioid medications. Many studies have examined the effect of opioids on the endocrine system; however, a systematic review of the endocrine actions of opioids in both humans and animals has, to our knowledge, not been published since 1984. Thus, we reviewed the literature on the effect of opioids on the endocrine system. We included both acute and chronic effects of opioids, with the majority of the studies done on the acute effects although chronic effects are more physiologically relevant. In humans and laboratory animals, opioids generally increase GH and prolactin and decrease LH, testosterone, estradiol, and oxytocin. In humans, opioids increase TSH, whereas in rodents, TSH is decreased. In both rodents and humans, the reports of effects of opioids on arginine vasopressin and ACTH are conflicting. Opioids act preferentially at different receptor sites leading to stimulatory or inhibitory effects on hormone release. Increasing opioid abuse primarily leads to hypogonadism but may also affect the secretion of other pituitary hormones. The potential consequences of hypogonadism include decreased libido and erectile dysfunction in men, oligomenorrhea or amenorrhea in women, and bone loss or infertility in both sexes. Opioids may increase or decrease food intake, depending on the type of opioid and the duration of action. Additionally, opioids may act through the sympathetic nervous system to cause hyperglycemia and impaired insulin secretion. In this review, recent information regarding endocrine disorders among opioid abusers is presented.

References

  1. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol. 1984 Dec;18(5-6):365-73 - PubMed
  2. Neuroendocrinology. 1988 Jul;48(1):97-104 - PubMed
  3. J Biol Chem. 1995 Jun 23;270(25):15391-7 - PubMed
  4. Life Sci. 1984 Apr 9;34(15):1463-73 - PubMed
  5. Endocrinology. 1983 Nov;113(5):1806-11 - PubMed
  6. Clin Sci (Lond). 1980 Dec;59(6):501-3 - PubMed
  7. Mol Cell Endocrinol. 1997 Dec 12;135(2):147-52 - PubMed
  8. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1994 May;78(5):1249-52 - PubMed
  9. J Comp Neurol. 1983 May 20;216(3):339-58 - PubMed
  10. Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1997 Nov;21(11):1076-81 - PubMed
  11. Physiol Rev. 1986 Jan;66(1):172-234 - PubMed
  12. Eur J Pharmacol. 1981 Oct 15;75(1):1-6 - PubMed
  13. Endocr Rev. 2005 Oct;26(6):833-76 - PubMed
  14. Life Sci. 1984 Sep 3;35(10):1101-7 - PubMed
  15. EMBO J. 1985 May;4(5):1257-60 - PubMed
  16. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985 May;60(5):891-5 - PubMed
  17. Panminerva Med. 1993 Dec;35(4):214-7 - PubMed
  18. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2007 Apr;66(4):604-5 - PubMed
  19. Addict Biol. 2004 Mar;9(1):53-8 - PubMed
  20. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1992 Oct;37(4):349-53 - PubMed
  21. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1997 Oct;58(2):345-8 - PubMed
  22. J Endocrinol Invest. 1984 Jun;7(3):211-4 - PubMed
  23. Endocrinol Jpn. 1986 Dec;33(6):813-20 - PubMed
  24. J Anim Sci. 1990 Jun;68(6):1656-65 - PubMed
  25. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1995 Feb;80(2):540-5 - PubMed
  26. Peptides. 1985 Sep-Oct;6(5):869-72 - PubMed
  27. Neuroendocrinology. 1988 Dec;48(6):611-4 - PubMed
  28. Fed Proc. 1985 Feb;44(2):290-9 - PubMed
  29. Int J Health Serv. 1981;11(4):491-510 - PubMed
  30. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1979 Apr;10(4):615-8 - PubMed
  31. J Physiol Pharmacol. 1991 Dec;42(4):427-37 - PubMed
  32. JAMA. 1993 Nov 17;270(19):2301-2 - PubMed
  33. Biomed Pharmacother. 1986;40(5):178-82 - PubMed
  34. Pain. 2004 Jun;109(3):514-519 - PubMed
  35. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1986 Mar;236(3):627-33 - PubMed
  36. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1995 Nov;122(1):78-84 - PubMed
  37. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry. 2001 May;25(4):729-41 - PubMed
  38. Metabolism. 1981 Feb;30(2):195-209 - PubMed
  39. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985 Jan;60(1):191-6 - PubMed
  40. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2002 Jun;301(3):785-9 - PubMed
  41. Pain Pract. 2008 Jul-Aug;8(4):248-52 - PubMed
  42. Endocrinology. 1987 Aug;121(2):536-43 - PubMed
  43. Paediatr Anaesth. 2003 Jul;13(6):508-14 - PubMed
  44. Addict Biol. 2006 Mar;11(1):84-96 - PubMed
  45. Diabetes Care. 1984 Jan-Feb;7(1):92-8 - PubMed
  46. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1986 May;24(5):483-9 - PubMed
  47. Gynecol Endocrinol. 1997 Apr;11(2):75-82 - PubMed
  48. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1977 Jul;74(7):3014-8 - PubMed
  49. J Endocrinol. 1984 Aug;102(2):133-41 - PubMed
  50. Br J Pharmacol. 1978 Mar;62(3):370-1 - PubMed
  51. Horm Metab Res. 1986 Dec;18(12):842-8 - PubMed
  52. Life Sci. 1984 May 21;34(21):1999-2006 - PubMed
  53. J Endocrinol. 1986 Jun;109(3):313-20 - PubMed
  54. J Pharmacol. 1986 Jul-Sep;17(3):316-22 - PubMed
  55. Expert Opin Pharmacother. 2009 Aug;10(11):1841-5 - PubMed
  56. Appetite. 1984 Mar;5(1):61-8 - PubMed
  57. Neurosci Lett. 1983 Dec 30;43(2-3):227-30 - PubMed
  58. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1988;94(2):254-8 - PubMed
  59. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 1985 Oct;38(4):419-22 - PubMed
  60. Science. 1967 Jan 13;155(3759):170-3 - PubMed
  61. Gen Pharmacol. 1997 Jan;28(1):27-9 - PubMed
  62. Physiol Behav. 1988;42(1):41-5 - PubMed
  63. NIDA Res Monogr. 1984;55:14-23 - PubMed
  64. J Neuroendocrinol. 1993 Oct;5(5):553-6 - PubMed
  65. Diabetologia. 1987 Jan;30(1):33-7 - PubMed
  66. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1989 Mar;16(3):191-7 - PubMed
  67. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1982 Jan-Jun;14(1-2):91-9 - PubMed
  68. Neurosci Lett. 1986 Jun 30;67(3):289-94 - PubMed
  69. Neuro Endocrinol Lett. 2002 Apr;23(2):95-100 - PubMed
  70. Hum Reprod. 1993 Oct;8(10):1598-603 - PubMed
  71. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1984 Nov;177(2):354-9 - PubMed
  72. Pharmacol Rev. 2007 Mar;59(1):88-123 - PubMed
  73. Physiol Behav. 1993 Nov;54(5):853-9 - PubMed
  74. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982 Apr;54(4):693-7 - PubMed
  75. Fertil Steril. 1997 Nov;68(5):855-9 - PubMed
  76. Exp Clin Psychopharmacol. 2008 Oct;16(5):417-28 - PubMed
  77. Gynecol Endocrinol. 1999 Feb;13(1):26-35 - PubMed
  78. Brain Res. 1986 Sep 24;382(2):365-71 - PubMed
  79. Horm Metab Res. 1985 Feb;17(2):86-9 - PubMed
  80. Neuroendocrinology. 1987 May;45(5):338-42 - PubMed
  81. Brain Res. 1979 Oct 5;174(2):357-61 - PubMed
  82. Peptides. 1987 Mar-Apr;8(2):309-17 - PubMed
  83. J Endocrinol Invest. 1988 Apr;11(4):261-5 - PubMed
  84. Behav Neural Biol. 1979 May;26(1):23-40 - PubMed
  85. Neuroendocrinology. 1996 Jun;63(6):489-97 - PubMed
  86. Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1985 Jun 15;152(4):485-93 - PubMed
  87. Brain Res. 1987 Jun 30;414(2):339-48 - PubMed
  88. Clin J Pain. 2008 Jul-Aug;24(6):479-96 - PubMed
  89. Neuroendocrinology. 1985 Jul;41(1):13-6 - PubMed
  90. Neuropeptides. 1988 May-Jun;11(4):173-80 - PubMed
  91. J Physiol. 1988 Feb;396:319-47 - PubMed
  92. Physiol Behav. 1993 May;53(5):923-8 - PubMed
  93. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986 Nov;63(5):1112-6 - PubMed
  94. Neuroendocrinology. 1983 Oct;37(4):275-9 - PubMed
  95. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1985 Mar;22(3):273-9 - PubMed
  96. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1985;444:162-77 - PubMed
  97. Hum Reprod. 1993 Nov;8 Suppl 2:168-74 - PubMed
  98. AACN Clin Issues. 2005 Jul-Sep;16(3):291-301 - PubMed
  99. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988 May;66(5):1000-4 - PubMed
  100. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2006 Feb 1;81(2):103-7 - PubMed
  101. Peptides. 1983 May-Jun;4(3):287-92 - PubMed
  102. J Intern Med. 2006 Jul;260(1):76-87 - PubMed
  103. J Neurosci. 2003 Nov 12;23(32):10331-7 - PubMed
  104. Life Sci. 1989;44(16):1097-105 - PubMed
  105. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1985 Sep;110(1):101-6 - PubMed
  106. Brain Res Bull. 1996;40(2):99-104 - PubMed
  107. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1989;14(1-2):103-11 - PubMed
  108. Annu Rev Med. 2005;56:117-37 - PubMed
  109. Obesity (Silver Spring). 2009 Jan;17(1):30-9 - PubMed
  110. Stress. 2008 Nov;11(6):483-8 - PubMed
  111. Life Sci. 1979 Feb 12;24(7):579-85 - PubMed
  112. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1980 Mar;12(3):427-30 - PubMed
  113. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1982 Mar;16(3):317-20 - PubMed
  114. Int J Androl. 1988 Apr;11(2):93-100 - PubMed
  115. Metabolism. 1987 Mar;36(3):286-9 - PubMed
  116. Exp Clin Endocrinol Diabetes. 2009 Jan;117(1):38-43 - PubMed
  117. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1987 Apr;114(4):509-14 - PubMed
  118. Peptides. 2005 Dec;26(12):2629-711 - PubMed
  119. Life Sci. 1990;47(24):2283-9 - PubMed
  120. Peptides. 1982 Mar-Apr;3(2):199-201 - PubMed
  121. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1986 Jun;237(3):841-7 - PubMed
  122. Neurosci Lett. 1985 Oct 24;61(1-2):37-41 - PubMed
  123. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1985 Feb;60(2):299-305 - PubMed
  124. J Endocrinol. 1995 Mar;144(3):503-10 - PubMed
  125. Life Sci. 1996;59(22):1881-90 - PubMed
  126. NIDA Res Monogr. 1986;75:539-42 - PubMed
  127. J Endocrinol Invest. 1989 Dec;12(11):777-82 - PubMed
  128. Diabetes. 1982 Apr;31(4 Pt 1):367-70 - PubMed
  129. Life Sci. 1997;61(23):2271-82 - PubMed
  130. Life Sci. 1986 Jun 9;38(23):2103-10 - PubMed
  131. Neuropeptides. 1995 Dec;29(6):343-9 - PubMed
  132. Fertil Steril. 1982 Mar;37(3):389-91 - PubMed
  133. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1991 Sep;40(1):27-32 - PubMed
  134. Brain Res. 1984 Sep 10;309(2):362-6 - PubMed
  135. Neuroendocrinology. 1983;36(3):187-96 - PubMed
  136. Neuroendocrinology. 1982 Nov;35(5):309-12 - PubMed
  137. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2000 Jun;150(3):253-9 - PubMed
  138. J Physiol. 1987 Dec;394:23-39 - PubMed
  139. Experientia. 1979 Apr 15;35(4):524-5 - PubMed
  140. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2005 Jan;90(1):203-6 - PubMed
  141. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1983 Oct;227(1):22-7 - PubMed
  142. Neurosci Lett. 1999 Mar 19;263(1):1-4 - PubMed
  143. Fertil Steril. 1999 Jan;71(1):115-21 - PubMed
  144. J Intern Med. 2005 May;257(5):478-80 - PubMed
  145. Am J Prev Med. 2006 Dec;31(6):506-11 - PubMed
  146. Brain Res. 2006 Apr 14;1083(1):151-8 - PubMed
  147. Neuroendocrinology. 1990 Sep;52(3):303-8 - PubMed
  148. Endocrinology. 1986 Feb;118(2):844-50 - PubMed
  149. Neurosci Lett. 1988 Nov 22;94(1-2):177-81 - PubMed
  150. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1982 Feb;60(2):201-4 - PubMed
  151. J Bone Miner Res. 1998 Jan;13(1):88-95 - PubMed
  152. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1985 Oct;110(2):170-5 - PubMed
  153. J Anim Sci. 1991 Feb;69(2):774-81 - PubMed
  154. Neuroendocrinology. 1982 Apr;34(4):274-8 - PubMed
  155. J Reprod Fertil. 1987 Sep;81(1):277-86 - PubMed
  156. Life Sci. 1987 Aug 10;41(6):765-73 - PubMed
  157. Int Rev Neurobiol. 1985;26:1-83 - PubMed
  158. Curr Opin Chem Biol. 1998 Feb;2(1):31-9 - PubMed
  159. Life Sci. 1993;52(17):1443-50 - PubMed
  160. Ann N Y Acad Sci. 1989;575:209-19; discussion 219-20 - PubMed
  161. Peptides. 1984 Sep-Oct;5(5):895-7 - PubMed
  162. Horm Metab Res. 1998 Jan;30(1):34-6 - PubMed
  163. Neuroendocrinology. 1985 Jan;40(1):39-44 - PubMed
  164. Obstet Gynecol. 1994 May;83(5 Pt 1):755-60 - PubMed
  165. Neuroendocrinology. 1991 Mar;53(3):209-13 - PubMed
  166. Neuroendocrinology. 1993 May;57(5):875-83 - PubMed
  167. Obstet Gynecol. 1988 Sep;72(3 Pt 1):332-6 - PubMed
  168. Brain Res Bull. 1985 Jun;14(6):663-72 - PubMed
  169. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1984 Oct;177(1):137-42 - PubMed
  170. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1987 Mar;184(3):312-9 - PubMed
  171. Brain Res. 1983 Oct;287(2):197-210 - PubMed
  172. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1985;10(2):203-9 - PubMed
  173. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh). 1982 Feb;50(2):113-6 - PubMed
  174. Br J Clin Pharmacol. 1991 Nov;32(5):611-5 - PubMed
  175. J Physiol. 1983 Aug;341:507-15 - PubMed
  176. Endocr J. 2005 Apr;52(2):265-9 - PubMed
  177. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1985 Feb;22(2):227-32 - PubMed
  178. J Anim Sci. 1993 Apr;71(4):1004-9 - PubMed
  179. Nature. 1984 May 17-23;309(5965):257-8 - PubMed
  180. Brain Res Bull. 2006 Dec 11;71(1-3):193-9 - PubMed
  181. Regul Pept. 1988 Apr;20(4):305-10 - PubMed
  182. Drug Alcohol Depend. 2003 Mar 1;69(2):127-35 - PubMed
  183. Pol J Pharmacol. 1995 Sep-Oct;47(5):441-4 - PubMed
  184. Arch Androl. 1999 Nov-Dec;43(3):189-96 - PubMed
  185. J Endocrinol. 1985 Dec;107(3):437-46 - PubMed
  186. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1993 Dec;39(6):671-5 - PubMed
  187. J Sex Med. 2008 Mar;5(3):684-92 - PubMed
  188. NIDA Res Monogr. 1986;75:331-4 - PubMed
  189. Psychoneuroendocrinology. 1986;11(2):245-8 - PubMed
  190. Endocrinology. 1987 May;120(5):1799-805 - PubMed
  191. Int Clin Psychopharmacol. 1995 Sep;10(3):163-72 - PubMed
  192. Neuropeptides. 1986 Nov-Dec;8(4):377-92 - PubMed
  193. Front Horm Res. 2009;37:150-162 - PubMed
  194. Clin J Pain. 2000 Sep;16(3):251-4 - PubMed
  195. Neuroendocrinology. 2004;79(4):197-203 - PubMed
  196. J Pharm Pharmacol. 1978 Oct;30(10):644-5 - PubMed
  197. Life Sci. 1982 Oct 18-25;31(16-17):1729-32 - PubMed
  198. Life Sci. 1982 Jul 26;31(4):307-14 - PubMed
  199. Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1983 Nov;12(3):725-46 - PubMed
  200. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1984 Feb;105(2):149-55 - PubMed
  201. Fertil Steril. 1995 Nov;64(5):951-6 - PubMed
  202. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2005 Mar;80(3):445-51 - PubMed
  203. Eur J Endocrinol. 2006 Jun;154(6):899-906 - PubMed
  204. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1987 Jun;64(6):1334-5 - PubMed
  205. Horm Behav. 1991 Sep;25(3):354-66 - PubMed
  206. N Engl J Med. 2003 Nov 13;349(20):1943-53 - PubMed
  207. Am J Psychiatry. 2006 Jul;163(7):1233-8 - PubMed
  208. Methods Find Exp Clin Pharmacol. 1997 May;19(4):269-73 - PubMed
  209. Eur J Pharmacol. 1981 Jul 10;72(4):313-21 - PubMed
  210. Horm Res. 1993;39(1-2):77-80 - PubMed
  211. Lancet. 1983 Mar 26;1(8326 Pt 1):714 - PubMed
  212. Eur J Endocrinol. 1997 Dec;137(6):631-4 - PubMed
  213. J Neuroendocrinol. 1990 Jun 1;2(3):389-95 - PubMed
  214. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1998 Sep;49(3):343-51 - PubMed
  215. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1980 Dec;51(6):1447-9 - PubMed
  216. Am J Med. 2005 Dec;118(12):1414 - PubMed
  217. Neuroscience. 1983 Sep;10(1):73-81 - PubMed
  218. Neuroendocrinology. 2000 Jul;72(1):20-8 - PubMed
  219. Clin Sci (Lond). 1998 Jul;95(1):91-5 - PubMed
  220. Pituitary. 2005;8(2):115-22 - PubMed
  221. Life Sci. 1977 Aug 1;21(3):461-6 - PubMed
  222. J Am Geriatr Soc. 1987 Jan;35(1):4-12 - PubMed
  223. J Clin Psychopharmacol. 1989 Apr;9(2):105-9 - PubMed
  224. Neuroendocrinology. 1992 Feb;55(2):214-20 - PubMed
  225. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1980;72(1):103-6 - PubMed
  226. Minerva Endocrinol. 1989 Apr-Jun;14(2):125-8 - PubMed
  227. Endocrinology. 1985 Sep;117(3):1096-9 - PubMed
  228. Anesthesiology. 2002 Dec;97(6):1602-8 - PubMed
  229. Arch Sex Behav. 1984 Feb;13(1):1-25 - PubMed
  230. Reg Anesth Pain Med. 2001 Nov-Dec;26(6):545-50 - PubMed
  231. J Neuroendocrinol. 2001 Oct;13(10):862-74 - PubMed
  232. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1983 Aug;33(4):829-35 - PubMed
  233. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2008 Jun;93(6):2042-9 - PubMed
  234. Neuroendocrinology. 1987 Jun;46(1):14-23 - PubMed
  235. Lancet. 1980 Nov 22;2(8204):1108-10 - PubMed
  236. J Psychoactive Drugs. 1991 Apr-Jun;23(2):123-33 - PubMed
  237. Arch Toxicol Suppl. 1985;8:394-7 - PubMed
  238. Can Anaesth Soc J. 1986 Jul;33(4):475-83 - PubMed
  239. Pain Physician. 2007 May;10(3):399-424 - PubMed
  240. J Endocrinol. 1985 Feb;104(2):299-307 - PubMed
  241. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1989 Mar;120(3):369-73 - PubMed
  242. Drug Alcohol Depend. 1998 Jun-Jul;51(1-2):23-47 - PubMed
  243. Prog Cardiovasc Dis. 1985 May-Jun;27(6):435-50 - PubMed
  244. J Pain. 2006 Mar;7(3):200-10 - PubMed
  245. Acta Anaesthesiol Scand. 2004 May;48(5):619-24 - PubMed
  246. Fed Proc. 1985 Jan;44(1 Pt 1):92-4 - PubMed
  247. Metabolism. 1987 Oct;36(10):974-8 - PubMed
  248. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2000 Jun;85(6):2215-22 - PubMed
  249. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 2001 Dec;158(4):343-59 - PubMed
  250. Neuroendocrinology. 1992 May;55(5):519-28 - PubMed
  251. Life Sci. 1986 Feb 17;38(7):617-25 - PubMed
  252. Lancet. 1979 Feb 17;1(8112):341-3 - PubMed
  253. Pharmacol Rev. 2001 Jun;53(2):209-43 - PubMed
  254. Life Sci. 1987 Jun 8;40(23):2289-96 - PubMed
  255. Neuropeptides. 2000 Feb;34(1):69-75 - PubMed
  256. J Neurochem. 1981 Sep;37(3):619-26 - PubMed
  257. J Pain Symptom Manage. 1994 Feb;9(2):126-31 - PubMed
  258. Horm Res. 1988;29(5-6):218-22 - PubMed
  259. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1981;74(2):125-8 - PubMed
  260. Poult Sci. 1989 Jul;68(7):1015-8 - PubMed
  261. Neuropsychopharmacology. 2003 May;28(5):985-94 - PubMed
  262. Pain. 2008 Sep 15;138(3):507-513 - PubMed
  263. Nature. 1997 Apr 3;386(6624):499-502 - PubMed
  264. Life Sci. 1985 Nov 4;37(18):1655-63 - PubMed
  265. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1998 Apr;285(1):63-70 - PubMed
  266. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1991 Dec;73(6):1241-7 - PubMed
  267. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1984 Mar;20(3):299-305 - PubMed
  268. Int J Addict. 1995 Jun;30(8):919-27 - PubMed
  269. Horm Res. 1987;27(2):95-101 - PubMed
  270. J Androl. 1987 Jul-Aug;8(4):203-9 - PubMed
  271. Peptides. 1985 Jul-Aug;6(4):769-91 - PubMed
  272. Endocrinology. 1986 Jul;119(1):1-11 - PubMed
  273. Expert Rev Neurother. 2006 Sep;6(9):1249-65 - PubMed
  274. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1997 Dec;82(12):4010-4 - PubMed
  275. Acta Endocrinol (Copenh). 1980 Jul;94(3):304-8 - PubMed
  276. Endocrinology. 1982 Nov;111(5):1483-90 - PubMed
  277. J Physiol. 1991;440:437-54 - PubMed
  278. Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1998 Mar;76(3):252-8 - PubMed
  279. J Neurosci. 1995 May;15(5 Pt 1):3328-41 - PubMed
  280. Br Med Bull. 1983 Jan;39(1):83-8 - PubMed
  281. Endocrinology. 1981 Aug;109(2):544-7 - PubMed
  282. Horm Metab Res. 1983 Dec;15(12):589-93 - PubMed
  283. Clin Physiol Biochem. 1985;3(1):43-60 - PubMed
  284. Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1988 Nov;15(11):865-73 - PubMed
  285. J Clin Invest. 1984 Jul;74(1):47-55 - PubMed
  286. Horm Metab Res. 1988 Nov;20(11):687-90 - PubMed
  287. Nature. 1996 Oct 31;383(6603):819-23 - PubMed
  288. J Endocrinol. 1996 Jan;148(1):149-55 - PubMed
  289. Brain Res. 1988 Jun 7;451(1-2):69-76 - PubMed
  290. Life Sci. 1978 Jun 26;22(24):2205-7 - PubMed
  291. Eur J Pharmacol. 1983 Nov 25;95(3-4):231-8 - PubMed
  292. J Endocrinol Invest. 1999;22(5 Suppl):110-6 - PubMed
  293. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1991 Jun;39(2):279-86 - PubMed
  294. Brain Res. 1996 Oct 28;738(1):167-71 - PubMed
  295. Neuroendocrinology. 1985 Apr;40(4):303-8 - PubMed
  296. Neuroendocrinology. 1990 Apr;51(4):376-84 - PubMed
  297. Life Sci. 1982 Oct 18-25;31(16-17):1809-12 - PubMed
  298. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1999 Jul;63(3):515-20 - PubMed
  299. Gynecol Obstet Invest. 1999;48(1):33-7 - PubMed
  300. Brain Res. 1995 Sep 4;690(2):207-16 - PubMed
  301. Life Sci. 1997;60(20):1741-7 - PubMed
  302. Obstet Gynecol. 1990 Jun;75(6):998-1000 - PubMed
  303. Endocrinology. 1985 Oct;117(4):1687-92 - PubMed
  304. Neuroendocrinology. 1989 Oct;50(4):460-3 - PubMed
  305. Neuroreport. 2000 Sep 28;11(14):3113-6 - PubMed
  306. Funct Dev Morphol. 1991;1(4):3-6 - PubMed
  307. Indian J Med Res. 1989 Feb;90:51-4 - PubMed
  308. Neuroendocrinology. 1989 Jul;50(1):109-16 - PubMed
  309. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1983 Oct;19(4):437-44 - PubMed
  310. J Neurosci. 1996 Oct 15;16(20):6490-503 - PubMed
  311. Br J Pharmacol. 2006 Jan;147 Suppl 1:S153-62 - PubMed
  312. Jpn J Pharmacol. 1997 May;74(1):45-9 - PubMed
  313. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986 Jun;62(6):1256-63 - PubMed
  314. Pharmacol Res Commun. 1980 Apr;12(4):375-8 - PubMed
  315. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1986 Jun;237(3):848-52 - PubMed
  316. J Endocrinol Invest. 1987 Apr;10(2):137-41 - PubMed
  317. Neuroendocrinology. 1981 Sep;33(3):129-35 - PubMed
  318. Pharmacol Ther. 1995;68(3):343-64 - PubMed
  319. J Med Chem. 1982 Feb;25(2):116-20 - PubMed
  320. Annu Rev Neurosci. 1984;7:223-55 - PubMed
  321. Acta Eur Fertil. 1983 Nov-Dec;14(6):409-14 - PubMed
  322. J Neurochem. 1993 Jun;60(6):2304-7 - PubMed
  323. J Pain. 2008 Feb;9(2):122-45 - PubMed
  324. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 1981 Apr;14(4):381-6 - PubMed
  325. Neuroendocrinology. 1996 Jun;63(6):569-78 - PubMed
  326. Appetite. 1984 Mar;5(1):1-6 - PubMed
  327. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982 Apr;54(4):854-7 - PubMed
  328. J Neural Transm. 1987;68(3-4):217-25 - PubMed
  329. Neuroscience. 2008 Oct 15;156(3):788-99 - PubMed
  330. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1981 Jun;217(3):630-7 - PubMed
  331. Endocrinology. 1988 Jun;122(6):2718-26 - PubMed
  332. Gynecol Endocrinol. 2001 Feb;15(1):14-22 - PubMed
  333. Neuroendocrinology. 1986;42(4):357-60 - PubMed
  334. J Endocrinol. 1987 Jun;113(3):423-7 - PubMed
  335. Proc Soc Exp Biol Med. 1978 Jul;158(3):431-6 - PubMed
  336. Science. 1980 May 9;208(4444):623-5 - PubMed
  337. Addict Biol. 2005 Dec;10(4):345-9 - PubMed
  338. Science. 1979 Apr 13;204(4389):203-5 - PubMed
  339. Neurosci Res. 1995 Sep;23(2):121-45 - PubMed
  340. Brain Res. 1988 Mar 1;442(2):214-22 - PubMed
  341. J Comp Neurol. 1996 Apr 08;367(3):375-402 - PubMed
  342. Endocr Pract. 1996 Jan-Feb;2(1):4-7 - PubMed
  343. Cell Tissue Res. 1975 Dec 2;164(2):153-62 - PubMed
  344. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1992 Aug;75(2):552-7 - PubMed
  345. Annu Rev Pharmacol Toxicol. 1983;23:541-94 - PubMed
  346. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982 Jul;55(1):1-7 - PubMed
  347. Endocrinol Metab Clin North Am. 1992 Dec;21(4):833-58 - PubMed
  348. Clin Endocrinol (Oxf). 2008 Mar;68(3):404-12 - PubMed
  349. Metabolism. 1987 Feb;36(2):105-9 - PubMed
  350. Prog Neurobiol. 1989;33(5-6):399-447 - PubMed
  351. Horm Metab Res. 2005 Jul;37(7):425-7 - PubMed
  352. J Pain. 2002 Oct;3(5):377-84 - PubMed
  353. Neuroendocrinology. 1994 Jul;60(1):69-75 - PubMed
  354. Neuropharmacology. 1981 May;20(5):469-71 - PubMed
  355. Domest Anim Endocrinol. 1991 Jan;8(1):15-27 - PubMed
  356. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1987 Sep;242(3):970-3 - PubMed
  357. Pediatrics. 2006 Dec;118(6):2472-80 - PubMed
  358. J Neurochem. 1993 Jan;60(1):40-9 - PubMed
  359. Neuropharmacology. 1977 Jul-Aug;16(7-8):533-6 - PubMed
  360. J Pain. 2008 Jan;9(1):28-36 - PubMed
  361. Psychopharmacology (Berl). 1981;75(1):48-53 - PubMed
  362. J Neurosci. 1982 Jan;2(1):78-81 - PubMed
  363. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1997 Sep;58(1):243-8 - PubMed
  364. Brain Res Bull. 1994;34(6):571-4 - PubMed
  365. J Neurosci. 1987 Aug;7(8):2445-64 - PubMed
  366. Behav Neurosci. 1995 Feb;109(1):123-34 - PubMed
  367. Science. 1983 Jan 14;219(4581):189-91 - PubMed
  368. J Endocrinol. 1989 Jun;121(3):521-36 - PubMed
  369. Acta Pharmacol Toxicol (Copenh). 1985 Jan;56(1):38-43 - PubMed
  370. Brain Res Bull. 1987 Nov;19(5):539-44 - PubMed
  371. Growth Dev Aging. 1991 Summer;55(2):91-103 - PubMed
  372. Poult Sci. 1994 Nov;73(11):1746-54 - PubMed
  373. Neuropeptides. 2004 Aug;38(4):267-75 - PubMed
  374. Endocrinology. 1984 Sep;115(3):1095-101 - PubMed
  375. J Steroid Biochem. 1986 Oct;25(4):535-40 - PubMed
  376. Horm Res. 1985;21(3):155-9 - PubMed
  377. Brain Res. 1991 Jul 12;553(2):284-90 - PubMed
  378. Brain Res. 1990 Jul 30;524(1):77-84 - PubMed
  379. Neuroreport. 1993 Mar;4(3):331-3 - PubMed
  380. Horm Behav. 1994 Mar;28(1):84-95 - PubMed
  381. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1983 Dec;57(6):1107-10 - PubMed
  382. Eur J Pharmacol. 1979 Dec 7;60(2-3):253-5 - PubMed
  383. Exp Brain Res. 1984;56(2):221-6 - PubMed
  384. Endocr Res. 1985;11(1-2):39-44 - PubMed
  385. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1986 Dec;63(6):1427-31 - PubMed
  386. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol. 1980;22:399-407 - PubMed
  387. Neuroendocrinology. 1984 May;38(5):411-7 - PubMed
  388. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1988 Aug;30(4):1021-34 - PubMed
  389. Eur J Pharmacol. 1997 Apr 18;324(2-3):R1-2 - PubMed
  390. Clin Sci (Lond). 2001 Oct;101(4):415-9 - PubMed
  391. Hum Reprod. 2008 Nov;23(11):2564-9 - PubMed
  392. Brain Res Bull. 2000 Dec;53(6):793-800 - PubMed
  393. Endocrinology. 1981 Jun;108(6):2400-2 - PubMed
  394. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1988 Apr;66(4):804-10 - PubMed
  395. Endocrinology. 1983 Aug;113(2):596-603 - PubMed
  396. Neurosci Lett. 2001 May 18;304(1-2):69-72 - PubMed
  397. Prog Brain Res. 1992;91:367-71 - PubMed
  398. Psychopharmacol Bull. 1985;21(3):489 - PubMed
  399. Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 1975 Jan-Feb;3(1):133-8 - PubMed
  400. J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1987 Mar;240(3):825-30 - PubMed
  401. Neurosci Lett. 1983 Aug 29;39(2):175-80 - PubMed
  402. Adv Biochem Psychopharmacol. 1980;22:257-70 - PubMed
  403. J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1980 Feb;50(2):251-7 - PubMed
  404. Clin J Pain. 1992 Jun;8(2):77-85 - PubMed

Substances

MeSH terms

Publication Types

Grant support